Integrative insights into abiotic stress tolerance in finger millet (<i>Eleusine coracana</i> (L.) Gaertn.): linking physiological, biochemical, and molecular perspectives for developing climate-smart cereals

Finger millet (<i>Eleusine coracana</i> (L.) Gaertn.) is a resilient yet underutilized cereal with exceptional potential to withstand adverse environmental conditions. Despite its adaptability, the genetic and physiological bases of its stress tolerance remain insufficiently characterized and poorly integrated into modern crop improvement pipelines. This review critically evaluates current knowledge of finger millet responses to major abiotic stresses such as drought, salinity, temperature extremes, and heavy metal toxicity with the aim of identifying key regulatory nodes and translational opportunities. At the physiological level, finger millet displays notable plasticity through modulation of root system architecture, transpiration efficiency, and leaf structural traits. Biochemically, it accumulates osmoprotectants such as proline, enhances antioxidant enzyme activities, and activates detoxification pathways to mitigate cellular damage. These responses are orchestrated by diverse molecular regulators, including transcription factors, signaling proteins, and stress-responsive genes. However, a clear framework connecting physiological traits to molecular regulation remains lacking. Recent advances in genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics provide powerful tools for dissecting complex stress adaptation networks. Furthermore, CRISPR/Cas9-mediated genome editing offers new avenues for precise trait enhancement. Yet, the incorporation of these technologies into breeding programs is still limited, particularly regarding genotype-phenotype associations and evaluation under multi-stress field conditions. This review highlights the integration of physiological, biochemical, and molecular strategies as a roadmap for precision breeding in finger millet. By linking molecular insights to practical agronomic outcomes, we advocate repositioning finger millet as a model system for developing climate-resilient cereals.